Dyscalculia
In the primary grades, number combinations and word problems are two key concepts for establishing a strong foundation. Number combinations are one-digit addition and subtraction problems (e.g. 3+2=5). As the learner becomes proficient in counting strategies, these pairs and associations move to long-term memory. Word problems are linguistically presented questions that require sorting through information and adding or subtracting one- or two-digit numerals.
To improve number combination skills, there are two intervention approaches: conceptual instruction, where the teacher structures experiences to foster interconnected knowledge about quantities and guides students to correct understandings; and drill and practice, where repeated pairings of problem stems with correct answers serve to establish representations in long-term memory. The latest research reports that a combination of these approaches results in better outcomes.
To enhance word problem skills, two additional approaches exist: metacognitive instruction, in which teachers help students apply planning and organizational strategies, and schema-based instruction, in which students first master rules for solving problem types and then develop schemas to group problems into types that require similar solution strategies.
There is still much to be done in terms of basic research, assessment and remediation of mathematical disabilities. A standardized diagnostic test is needed to obtain more precise information on such aspects as counting knowledge and mathematical problem-solving procedures for elementary school children with dyscalculia. Measures are also needed to identify preschoolers at risk. As well, more research is required on basic counting and arithmetic skills in preschool children as they relate to later risk of dyscalculia, the genetics of dyscalculia and the neurological systems that might be involved, and the co-occurrence of reading and math problems.
Finally, the anxiety and avoidance of mathematics that are likely to result from the cognitive deficits must be addressed. Without attention to the frustration and anxiety, a risk for exacerbated and long-term problems in math exists.
Finally, the anxiety and avoidance of mathematics that are likely to result from the cognitive deficits must be addressed. Without attention to the frustration and anxiety, a risk for exacerbated and long-term problems in math exists.
Dyslexia
Brain imaging studies have revealed differences in brain activation patterns between good and poor readers. When poor readers were taught with evidence-based methods, however, their neural systems reorganized to resemble the brain activation patterns of those observed in children who were good readers. This demonstrates that teaching really matters.
In 2000, the National Reading Panel appointed by the U.S. Congress reported that to learn to read, children must be taught five elements of reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and reading comprehension. Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice and identify the individual sounds of spoken words (e.g. “mat” has three phenomes: “mmm”-“aaa”-“t”). Phonics is the ability to link letters to individual sounds. The knowledge that these two components are key to developing a foundation for reading means that such skills and awareness can be taught to young children, even before they are expected to read.
Simple rhyming games help children as young as three years old begin to appreciate that spoken words come apart. For example, to know that “mat,” “hat” and “cat” rhyme, a child must be able to focus on only a part of the word (the rhyme “at”). Gradually, children learn to pull words apart, push them together and move the parts around. Simple activities such as clapping to the number of sounds (syllables) in a spoken word help children learn how to pull apart words.
Training and strengthening the core reading processes is the most likely way to boost reading skills. Any activity that helps to develop language skills is to be welcomed, but from age five, there should be more systematic practice of at least five to 20 minutes per day, realized in the context of play. The most appropriate preventive procedure is to use a consistency principle that favours the most dominant and frequent letter-sound connections.
Children who are at risk should be identified and helped as early as possible. Language development should be assessed beginning at age two – especially for children from families with a background of dyslexia. If no delay is observed, the next stage of identification of potential risk is at age four, when spontaneous acquisition of letter knowledge provides good evidence of the possible need for preventive practice.
Ultimately, young children’s literacy development involves a dynamic thinking and linguistic process, incorporating problem-solving, discussion, reflection and decision-making. Effective interventions for children who may be at risk of developing learning disabilities should therefore focus on multidimensional learning.
Resolving questions about optimum approaches in the teaching of literacy and mathematics for children at risk is more than an academic question, but has ramifications at the national and international levels. Providing young children with these basic skills enhances their academic, emotional and social well-being, with lifelong implications.
|